doi: 10.18178/ijesd.2026.17.5.1607
Pollutant-specific Responses of Epiphytic Lichens at Selected Air Pollution Monitoring Stations in Peninsular Malaysia
Nur Syafiqah Abd Hakim1
,
Asmida Ismail1,2,* ,
Mohd Talib Latif3 ,
Faezah Pardi1,2 ,
Rosla Zamzuri4 ,
Sofia Khalid5 ,
Faeiza Buyong6
- 1School of Biology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Malaysia
- 2Institute for Biodiversity & Sustainable Development, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Malaysia
- 3Department of Earth Sciences & Environment, Faculty of Science & Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia
- 4Department of Environment, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Sustainability, Putrajaya, Malaysia
- 5Department of Environmental Sciences, Fatima Jinnah Women University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan
- 6School of Chemistry & Environment, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Malaysia
- Manuscript receivedApril 13, 2026
- revisedMay 13, 2026
- acceptedMay 29, 2026
- publishedOctober 21, 2026
Abstract
Lichens are vital bioindicators of air quality due to their sensitivity to pollutants. This study investigates lichen species composition and responses to atmospheric contaminants in selected industrial, urban, suburban, and rural areas across northern to central–eastern Peninsular Malaysia. Monthly air quality data from July 2017 to December 2023, including PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, O3, and CO, were obtained from the Department of Environment Malaysia. Lichen samples were collected from ten mature trees at each site using 20 cm × 30 cm quadrats and identified using morphological and chemical characteristics. A total of 19 lichen species were recorded, with crustose lichens dominating across all land-use types. Species richness peaked at the industrial site (12 species), followed by suburban (11 species), urban (10 species), and rural (7 species) sites. The urban site had the highest mean concentrations of PM10 (26.56 ± 0.71 µg/m3), PM2.5 (18.96 ± 0.60 µg/m3), NO2, SO2, and CO, with significant differences among sites(p < 0.001) . Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) indicated that Lepraria incana and Amandinea punctata were associated with environments characterized by elevated particulate matter, whereas Parmotrema tinctorum, Lecidea lithophila, and Chrysothrix candelaris were associated with less disturbed environments. Several crustose taxa, particularly within the genera Graphis and Lecanora, were more prevalent in urban and industrial environments, suggesting greater tolerance to anthropogenic disturbance and nutrient-enriched conditions. These findings highlight the pollutant-specific and ecological responses of tropical lichen communities and support the application of lichen-based biomonitoring for long-term air quality assessment in rapidly developing regions.
Keywords
- lichen
- bioindicator
- air pollution
- species composition
- canonical correspondence analysis
How to Cite
Nur Syafiqah Abd Hakim, Asmida Ismail, Mohd Talib Latif, Faezah Pardi, Rosla Zamzuri, Sofia Khalid, and Faeiza Buyong, "Pollutant-specific Responses of Epiphytic Lichens at Selected Air Pollution Monitoring Stations in Peninsular Malaysia," International Journal of Environmental Science and Development, vol. 17, no. 5, pp. 474-484, 2026. https://doi.org/10.18178/ijesd.2026.17.5.1607
Copyright & License
Copyright © 2026 by the authors. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited (CC BY 4.0).